\documentclass{article}

%\VignetteEngine{knitr::knitr}
%\VignetteIndexEntry{edge Package}


\usepackage{graphics}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{fullpage}
\usepackage{bibentry}
\usepackage[section]{placeins}
\usepackage[round]{natbib}
\usepackage{authblk}
\usepackage[parfill]{parskip}
\setlength{\parskip}{10pt}
%\usepackage{indentfirst}
\usepackage[colorlinks=true]{hyperref}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\nobibliography*
\newcommand{\edge}{{\tt edge}\ }
\newcommand{\edgeNS}{{\tt edge}}
\Sexpr{library(knitr); library(splines); library(edge); opts_chunk$set(tidy=TRUE, cache=FALSE, warning=FALSE, message=FALSE,fig.align='center')}

\begin{document}

<<foo,cache=FALSE,include=FALSE,echo=FALSE>>=
library(edge)
options(keep.source = TRUE, width = 48)
foo <- packageDescription("edge")
@

\title{\edgeNS:\\ \underline{E}xtraction of \underline{D}ifferential
\underline{G}ene \underline{E}xpression \\ Version \Sexpr{foo$Version}}

\author[1,2]{John D. Storey\thanks{\url{http://genomine.org/contact.html}}}
\author[3]{Jeffrey T. Leek}
\author[1]{Andrew J. Bass}
\affil[1]{Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton
University, Princeton NJ USA}
\affil[2]{Center for Statistics and Machine Learning, Princeton
University, Princeton NJ USA}
\affil[3]{Department of Biostatistics, John Hopkins University,
Baltimore MD USA}

%\renewcommand\Authands{ and }

\maketitle

\Large
\begin{center}

First edition: October 2005

Most recent edition:  March 2015
\end{center}
\normalsize

\

\

\noindent {\bf Note:}  \edge was first released in 2005 and described in the
publication \cite{leek2005}. It was an independently released R package by the
\href{http://www.genomine.org/}{John Storey Lab}, which included
multi-threading and a graphical user interface. However, the current version
is now available through Bioconductor as a standard R package.



\clearpage
\tableofcontents

% INTRODUCTION ----------------------------------------------------------------
\section{Introduction}
The \edge package implements methods for carrying out differential
expression analyses of genome-wide gene expression studies. Significance
testing using the optimal discovery procedure and generalized likelihood
ratio test (equivalent to F-tests and t-tests) are implemented for general study
designs. Special functions are available to facilitate the analysis of
common study designs, including time course experiments. Other packages
such as {\tt snm}, {\tt sva}, and {\tt qvalue} are integrated in \edge to
provide a wide range of tools for gene expression analysis.

\edge performs significance analysis by using a framework developed by
\cite{storey:2007} called the optimal discovery procedure (ODP). Whereas
standard methods employ statistics that are essentially designed for testing
one gene at a time (e.g., t-statistics and F-statistics), the ODP-statistic
uses information across all genes to test for differential expression.
\cite{storey:etal:2007} shows that the ODP is a principled, often times more
powerful, approach to multiple hypothesis testing compared to traditional
methods. The improvements in power from using the optimal discovery procedure
can be substantial; Figure~\ref{fig:Comparison} shows a comparison between
\edge and five leading software packages based on the \cite{hedenfalk:2001}
breast cancer expression study.

\begin{figure}[htb]
 \centering
\includegraphics[scale=.50]{edgecomp.pdf}
\caption{Comparison of EDGE to various other leading methods for identifying
differential expressed genes in the \cite{hedenfalk:2001} study. This figure
is from \cite{leek2005}.}
\label{fig:Comparison}
\end{figure}

{\tt edge} also implements strategies that have been specifically designed for
time course experiments and other complex study designs. Specifically,
\cite{storey:2005} developed a procedure that simplifies the modelling process
for time course experiments. In addition to identifying differentially
expressed genes in multi-class, time course, and general study designs, \edge
includes implementations of popular packages such as {\tt snm}, {\tt sva} and
{\tt qvalue} to help simplify the analysis process for researchers.

The rest of the document details how to use \edge in three different case
studies: static sampling among $K$ groups, independent time course, and
longitudinal time course. For additional information regarding the optimal
discovery procedure or the \cite{storey:2005} methodology for time course
experiments, see section~\ref{sec:citepackage}.

\section{Citing this package}
\label{sec:citepackage}

{\bf When reporting results involving the estimation of false discovery rate or q-value quantities, please cite:}

\bibentry{Storey:2002fc}

\bibentry{Storey:2003il}

{\bf When reporting results involving the analysis of time course studies, please cite:}

\bibentry{storey:2005}
% A methodology for analyzing time course microarray data is introduced and
% applied to two time course studies on humans.

{\bf When reporting results involving use of the optimal discovery procedure ({\tt odp}), please cite:}

\bibentry{storey:2007}
% Theory paper that introduces the optimal discovery procedure and shows that it
% maximizes the expected true positive results for each number of fixed false
% positive results. The optimality is closely related to the false discovery rate.

\bibentry{storey:etal:2007}
% Discusses various ways of estimating the ODP statistic with applications to
% microarray experiments.

\bibentry{woo:leek:storey:2011}
% Previous implementations of the ODP are computationally infeasible for a large
% number of hypothesis tests. This paper introduces a computationally efficient
% implementation of ODP that this package is based on.

{\bf When reporting results involving surrogate variable analysis ({\tt apply\_sva}), please cite:}

\bibentry{leek:2007}

\bibentry{Leek:2008qf}

{\bf When reporting results involving supervised normalization of microarrays ({\tt apply\_snm}), please cite:}

\bibentry{mecham:2010}

{\bf To cite the {\tt edge} R package itself, please type the following to retrieve the citation:}

<<citepackage,cache=FALSE>>=
citation("edge")
@


\section{Getting help}
Many questions about {\tt qvalue} will hopefully be answered by this documentation and references therein.  As with any R package, detailed information on functions, their arguments and values, can be obtained in the help files. To view the
help for {\tt qvalue} within R, type
<<help_edge>>=
help(package="edge")
@
\noindent If you identify bugs related to basic usage please contact the authors directly, preferably via GitHub at \url{https://github.com/jdstorey/edge/issues}.  Otherwise, any questions or problems regarding {\tt edge} will most efficiently be addressed on the Bioconductor support site, \url{https://support.bioconductor.org/}.

\section{Quick start guide}
To get started, first load the {\tt kidney} dataset included in the package:
<<qs_load_data, cache=TRUE>>=
library(edge)
data(kidney)
age <- kidney$age
sex <- kidney$sex
kidexpr <- kidney$kidexpr
@
The {\tt kidney} study is interested in determining differentially expressed
genes with respect to age in the kidney. The {\tt age} variable is the age of
the subjects and the {\tt sex} variable is whether the subjects are male or
female. The expression values for the genes are contained in the {\tt kidexpr}
variable.

Once the data has been loaded, the user has two options to create the
experimental models: {\tt build\_models} or {\tt build\_study}. If the
experiment models are unknown to the user, {\tt build\_study} can be used to
create the models:
<<qs_build_study, echo=TRUE, cache=TRUE>>=
de_obj <- build_study(data = kidexpr, adj.var = sex, tme = age, sampling = "timecourse")
full_model <- fullModel(de_obj)
null_model <- nullModel(de_obj)
@
{\tt sampling} describes the type of experiment performed,
{\tt adj.var} is the adjustment variable and {\tt time} is the time variable in
the study. If the experiment is more complex then type {\tt ?build\_study} for
additional arguments.

If the full and null models are known to the user then {\tt build\_models} can
be used to make an {\tt deSet} object:
<<qs_build_models, echo=TRUE, cache=TRUE>>=
library(splines)
cov <- data.frame(sex = sex, age = age)
null_model <- ~sex
full_model <- ~sex + ns(age, df=4)
de_obj <- build_models(data = kidexpr, cov = cov, null.model = null_model, full.model = full_model)
@

{\tt cov} is a data frame of covariates, {\tt null.model} is the null model and
{\tt full.model} is the full model. The input {\tt cov} is a data frame with the
column names the same as the variables in the full and null models.

The {\tt odp} or {\tt lrt} function can be used on {\tt de\_obj} to implement
either the optimal discovery procedure or the likelihood ratio test,
respectively:
<<qs_eSet, dependson="qs_build_models", cache=TRUE>>=
# optimal discovery procedure
de_odp <- odp(de_obj, bs.its = 50, verbose=FALSE)
# likelihood ratio test
de_lrt <- lrt(de_obj)
@

To access the $\pi_{0}$ estimate, p-values, q-values and local false discovery
rates for each gene, use the function {\tt qvalueObj}:
<<qs_qval, dependson="qs_eSet", cache=TRUE>>=
qval_obj <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
qvals <- qval_obj$qvalues
pvals <- qval_obj$pvalues
lfdr <- qval_obj$lfdr
pi0 <- qval_obj$pi0
@

The following sections of the manual go through various case studies for a more
comprehensive overview of the \edge package.

\section{Case study: static experiment}
\label{sec:gibson}
In the static sampling experiment, the arrays have been collected from distinct
biological groups without respect to time. The goal is to identify genes that
have a statistically significant difference in average expression across these
distinct biological groups. The example data set that will be used in this
section is the {\tt gibson} data set and it is a random subset of the data
from \cite{gibson:2008}.

The {\tt gibson} data set provides gene expression measurements in peripheral
blood leukocyte samples from three Moroccan Amazigh groups leading distinct
ways of life: desert nomadic (DESERT), mountain agrarian (VILLAGE), and coastal
urban (AGADIR). We are interested in finding the genes that differentiate the
Moroccan Amazigh groups the most. See \cite{gibson:2008} for additional
information regarding the data.

\subsection{Importing the data}
To import the {\tt gibson} data use the {\tt data} function:
<<gibson_import_data>>=
data(gibson)
gibexpr <- gibson$gibexpr
batch <- gibson$batch
gender <- gibson$gender
location <- gibson$location
@
There are a few variables in the data set: {\tt batch}, {\tt gibexpr},
{\tt gender}, and {\tt location}. The three covariates of interest are
{\tt gender}, {\tt batch} and {\tt location}. The biological variable is the
{\tt location} variable, which contains information on where individuals are
sampled: ``VILLAGE'', ``DESERT'' or ``AGADIR''. The {\tt gender} variable
specifies whether the individual is a male or a female and there are two
different {\tt batches} in the study. The {\tt gibexpr} variable contains the
gene expression measurements.

As an example, the expression values of the first gene are shown in
Figure~\ref{fig:gplot}. In the figure, it appears that the individuals from
``VILLAGE'' are more expressed when compared to the other lifestyles. We should
stop short of that observation because the data needs to be adjusted with the
experimental models. Before that, the full and null models of the study needs to
be carefully formulated.

\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.height=4, fig.width=8, echo=FALSE, cache=TRUE, dependson="gibson_import_data">>=
library(ggplot2)
gender <- as.factor(as.matrix(gender) )
location = as.factor(as.matrix(location))
batch = as.factor(as.matrix(batch))
qplot(location, gibexpr[1,], geom="point", colour=gender:batch, xlab= "location", ylab="expression")
@
\caption{Plot of gene 1 in the {\tt gibson} study.}
\label{fig:gplot}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Creating the full and null models}
In order to find deferentially expressed genes, there first needs to be a full
and null model for the study. There are two ways to input the experimental
models in \edgeNS: {\tt build\_models} and {\tt build\_study}.
{\tt build\_study} should be used by users unfamiliar with formulating the full
and null models but are familiar with the covariates in the study:
<<gibson_build_study, dependson="gibson_import_data", cache=TRUE>>=
de_obj <- build_study(data = gibexpr, adj.var = cbind(gender, batch), grp = location, sampling = "static")
@

{\tt adj.var} is for the adjustment variables, {\tt grp} is the variable
containing the group assignments for each individual in the study and
{\tt sampling} describes the type of experiment. Since {\tt gibson} is a static
study, the {\tt sampling} argument will be ``static''. The {\tt grp} variable
will be the {\tt location} variable and the adjustment variables are
{\tt gender} and {\tt batch}.

Alternatively, if the user is familiar with their full and null models in the
study then {\tt build\_models} can be used to input the models directly:
<<gibson_build_models, dependson="gibson_import_data", cache=TRUE>>=
cov <- data.frame(Gender = gender, Batch = batch, Location = location)
null_model <- ~Gender + Batch
null_model <- ~Gender + Batch + Location
de_obj <- build_models(data = gibexpr, cov = cov, full.model = null_model, null.model = null_model)
@

The {\tt cov} argument is a data frame of all the relevant covariates,
{\tt full.model} and {\tt null.model} are the full and null models of the
experiment, respectively. Notice that the models must be formatted as a formula
and contain the same variable names as in the {\tt cov} data frame. The null
model contains the {\tt gender} and {\tt batch} covariates and the full model
includes the {\tt location} variable. Therefore, we are interested in testing
whether the full model improves the model fit of a gene when compared to the
null model. If it does not, then we can conclude that there is no significant
difference between Moroccan Amazigh groups for this particular gene.

The variable {\tt de\_obj} is an {\tt deSet} object that stores all the
relevant experimental data. The {\tt deSet} object is discussed further in the
next section.

\subsection{The {\tt deSet} object}
Once either {\tt build\_models} or {\tt build\_study} is used, an {\tt deSet}
object is created. To view the slots contained in the object:
<<gibson_deSet_slotNames>>=
slotNames(de_obj)
@
A description of each slot is listed below:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\tt full.model}: the full model of the experiment. Contains the
biological variables of interest and the adjustment variables.
\item {\tt null.model}: the null model of the experiment. Contains the
adjustment variables in the experiment.
\item {\tt full.matrix}: the full model in matrix form.
\item {\tt null.matrix}: the null model in matrix form.
\item {\tt individual}: variable that keeps track of individuals (if same
individuals are sampled multiple times).
\item {\tt qvalueObj}: {\tt qvalue} list. Contains p-values, q-values and local
false discovery rates of the significance analysis. See the
\href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/qvalue.html}{{\tt qvalue} package}
for more details.
\item {\tt ExpressionSet}: inherits the slots from {\tt ExpressionSet} object.
\end{itemize}

{\tt ExpressionSet} contains the expression measurements and other information
from the experiment. The {\tt deSet} object inherits all the functions from an
{\tt ExpressionSet} object. As an example, to access the expression values, one
can use the function {\tt exprs} or to access the covariates, {\tt pData}:
<<gibson_ExpressionSet>>=
gibexpr <- exprs(de_obj)
cov <- pData(de_obj)
@

The {\tt ExpressionSet} class is a widely used object in Bioconductor and more
information can be found \href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/2.14/bioc/html/Biobase.html}{here}. See the section~\ref{sec:advanced} on {\tt ExpressionSet} to get a better
understanding of how it integrates into the \edge framework.

As an example of how to access the slots of {\tt de\_obj} suppose we are
interested in viewing the full and null models. The models can be accessed by:
<<gibson_models, dependson="gibson_build_models">>=
fullModel(de_obj)
nullModel(de_obj)
@

Next, we can extract the models in matrix form for computational analysis:
<<gibson_matrix, eval=TRUE, dependson="gibson_build_models">>=
full_matrix <- fullMatrix(de_obj)
null_matrix <- nullMatrix(de_obj)
@
See {\tt ?deSet} for additional functions to access different slots of the
{\tt deSet} object.

\subsection{Fitting the data}

\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.height=4, fig.width=8, echo=FALSE, cache = TRUE, dependson=c("gibson_import_data")>>=
library(ggplot2)
library(reshape2)
de_obj <- build_study(data = gibexpr, adj.var = cbind(gender, batch), grp = location, sampling = "static")
ef_obj <- fit_models(de_obj)
fitVals <- fitFull(ef_obj)
fitVals0 <- fitNull(ef_obj)
gender <- as.factor(gender)
location = as.matrix(location)
batch = as.factor(batch)
df <- data.frame(batch = batch, gender = gender, location = location, null.model = fitVals0[1,], full.model = fitVals[1,], raw = exprs(de_obj)[1,])
df <- melt(data = df, id.vars=c("batch", "location", "gender"))
ggplot(df, aes(location, value, color=gender:batch), xlab="location", ylab="expression") + geom_point() + facet_wrap(~variable)
@
\caption{Plot of gene 1 in the {\tt gibson} study after applying the full and
null model fit. The ``raw'' column are the expression values of the original
data.}
\label{fig:gplotFit}
\end{figure}

The {\tt fit\_models} function is an implementation of least squares using the
full and null models:
<<gibson_fit_models, dependson="gibson_build_models">>=
ef_obj <- fit_models(de_obj, stat.type="lrt")
@
The {\tt stat.type} argument specifies whether you want the {\tt odp} or
{\tt lrt} fitted values. The difference between choosing ``odp'' and ``lrt'' is
that ``odp'' centers the data by the null model fit which is necessary for
downstream analysis in the optimal discovery procedure. {\tt fit\_models}
creates another object with the following slots:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\tt fit.full}: fitted values from the full model.
\item {\tt fit.null}: fitted values from null model.
\item {\tt res.full}: residuals from the full model.
\item {\tt res.null}: residuals from the null model.
\item {\tt dH.full}: diagonal elements in the projection matrix for the full
model.
\item {\tt beta.coef}: the coefficients for the full model.
\item {\tt stat.type}: statistic type used, either ``odp'' or ``lrt''.
\end{itemize}

To access the fitted coefficients of the full model in {\tt ef\_obj}:
<<gibson_betacoef, eval=FALSE, dependson="gibson_fit_models">>=
betaCoef(ef_obj)
@

To access the full and null residuals:
<<gibson_residuals, eval=FALSE, dependson="gibson_fit_models">>=
alt_res <- resFull(ef_obj)
null_res <- resNull(ef_obj)
@

To access the fitted values:
<<gibson_fitted, dependson="gibson_fit_models">>=
alt_fitted <- fitFull(ef_obj)
null_fitted <- fitNull(ef_obj)
@

See {\tt ?deFit} for more details on accessing the slots in an {\tt deFit}
object. The fitted values of the first gene are shown in
Figure~\ref{fig:gplotFit}. The null model fit is the average expression value
across the interaction of {\tt batch} and {\tt sex}. The full model fit seems
to pick up some differences relative to the null model. Next, we have to test
whether the observed differences between the model fits are significant.

\subsection{Significance analysis}
Interpreting the models in a hypothesis test is very intuitive: Does the full
model better fit the data when compared to the null model? For the fitted
values of the first gene plotted in Figure~\ref{fig:gplotFit}, it seems that
the full model fits the data better than the null model. In order to conclude
that it is significant, we need to calculate the p-value. The user can use
either the optimal discovery procedure or likelihood ratio test.

\subsubsection{Likelihood ratio test}
The {\tt lrt} function performs a likelihood ratio test to determine p-values:
<<gibson_lrt, cache=TRUE>>=
de_lrt <- lrt(de_obj, nullDistn="normal")
@
If the null distribution, {\tt nullDistn}, is calculated using ``bootstrap''
then residuals from the full model are re-sampled and added to the null model
to simulate a distribution where there is no differential expression.
Otherwise, the default input is ``normal'' and the assumption is that the null
statistics follow a F-distribution. See {\tt ?lrt} for additional arguments.

\subsubsection{Optimal discovery procedure}
{\tt odp} performs the optimal discovery procedure, which is a new approach
developed by \cite{storey:etal:2007} for optimally performing many hypothesis
tests in a high-dimensional study. When testing a feature, information from all
the features is utilized when testing for significance of a feature. It
guarantees to maximize the number of expected true positive results for each
fixed number of expected false positive results which is related to the false
discovery rate.

The optimal discovery procedure can be implemented on {\tt de\_obj} by the
{\tt odp} function:
<<gibson_odp, eval=TRUE, cache=TRUE>>=
de_odp <- odp(de_obj, bs.its = 50, verbose = FALSE, n.mods = 50)
@

The number of bootstrap iterations is controlled by {\tt bs.its},
{\tt verbose} prints each bootstrap iteration number and {\tt n.mods} is the
number of clusters in the k-means algorithm.

A k-means algorithm is used to assign genes to groups in order to speed up
the computational time of the algorithm. If {\tt n.mods} is equal to the number
of genes then the original optimal discovery procedure is used. Depending on
the number of genes, this setting can take a very long time.  Therefore, it is
recommended to use a small {\tt n.mods} value to substantially decrease the
computational time. In \cite{woo:leek:storey:2011}, it is shown that assigning
{\tt n.mods} to about 50 will cause a negligible loss in power. Type {\tt ?odp}
for more details on the algorithm.
\subsection{Significance results}
\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.width=8, fig.height=4, echo=FALSE, dependson="gibson_odp">>=
sig_results <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
hist(sig_results)
@
\caption{Applying the function {\tt hist} to the slot {\tt qvalueObj} in the
{\tt gibson} data set. Function is derived from the {\tt qvalue} package.}
\label{fig:gqvalHist}
\end{figure}

The {\tt summary} function can be used on an {\tt deSet} object to give an
overview of the analysis:
<<dependson = "gibson_odp", cache=TRUE>>=
summary(de_odp)
@
There are three core summaries: {\tt ExpressionSet} summary, \edge analysis and statistical significance summary. The {\tt ExpressionSet} summary shows a summary of the {\tt ExpressionSet} object. \edge analysis shows an overview of the models used and other information about the data set. The significance analysis shows the proportion of null genes, $\pi_{0}$, and significant genes at various cutoffs in terms of p-values, q-values and local false discovery rates.

The function {\tt qvalueObj} can be used on {\tt de\_odp} to extract the
significance results:
<<gibson_sig, dependson="gibson_odp", cache=TRUE>>=
sig_results <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
@

The object {\tt sig\_results} is a list with the following slots:
<<>>=
names(sig_results)
@
The key variables are {\tt pi0}, {\tt pvalues}, {\tt lfdr} and {\tt qvalues}.
The {\tt pi0} variable provides an estimate of the proportion of null p-values,
{\tt pvalues} are the p-values, {\tt qvalues} are the estimated q-values and
{\tt lfdr} are the local false discovery rates. Using the function {\tt hist}
on {\tt sig\_results} will produce a p-value histogram along with the
density curves of q-values and local false discovery rate values:
<<eval=FALSE>>=
hist(sig_results)
@

The plot is shown in Figure~\ref{fig:gqvalHist}. To extract the p-values,
q-values, local false discovery rates and the $\pi_{0}$ estimate:

<<>>=
pvalues <- sig_results$pvalues
qvalues <- sig_results$qvalues
lfdr <- sig_results$lfdr
pi0 <- sig_results$pi0
@

Making significance decisions based on p-values in multiple hypothesis testing
problems can lead to accepting a lot of false positives in the study. Instead,
using q-values to determine significant genes is recommended because it
controls the false discovery rate. Q-values measure the proportion of false
positives incurred when calling a particular test significant. For example, to
complete our analysis of gene 1 in this example, lets view the q-value estimate:
<<gibGene1, dependson="gibson_sig">>=
qvalues[1]
@

So for this particular gene, the q-value is \Sexpr{qvalues[1]}. If we consider
a false discovery rate cutoff of 0.1 then this gene is significant. Therefore,
the observed differences observed in Figure~\ref{fig:gplotFit} are significant
so this particular gene is differentially expressed between locations.

To get a list of all the significant genes at a false discovery rate cutoff
of 0.01:
<<gibSig, dependson="qvalob2_gib">>=
fdr.level <- 0.01
sigGenes <- qvalues < fdr.level
@

View the \href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/qvalue.html}{{\tt qvalue} vignette} to get a more thorough discussion in how to use p-values, q-values,
$\pi_{0}$ estimate and local false discovery rates to determine significant
genes.

\section{Case study: independent time course experiment}
\label{sec:kidney}
In the independent time course study, the arrays have been sampled with respect
to time from one biological group and the goal is to identify genes that show
``within-class temporal differential expression'', i.e., genes that show
statistically significant changes in expression over time. The example data set
used in this section is a kidney data set by \cite{rodwell:2004}. Gene
expression measurements, from cortex and medulla samples in the kidney, were
obtained from 72 human subjects ranging in age from 27 to 92 years. Only one
array was obtained per sample and the age and tissue type of each subject was
recorded. See \cite{rodwell:2004} for additional information regarding the data
set.

\subsection{Importing the data}
\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.height=4, fig.width=8, echo=FALSE>>=
library(ggplot2)
data(kidney)
age <- kidney$age
sex <- kidney$sex
kidexpr <- kidney$kidexpr
qplot(age, kidexpr[5,], geom="point", colour=sex, xlab= "age", ylab="expression")
@
\caption{Plot of gene 5 in the {\tt kidney} study.}
\label{fig:kplot}
\end{figure}
To import the {\tt kidney} data use the {\tt data} function:
<<kidney_import_data>>=
data(kidney)
age <- kidney$age
sex <- kidney$sex
kidexpr <- kidney$kidexpr
@

There are a few covariates in this data set: {\tt sex}, {\tt age}, and
{\tt kidexpr}. The two main covariates of interest are the {\tt sex} and
{\tt age} covariates. The {\tt sex} variable is whether the subject was male or
female and the {\tt age} variable is the age of the patients. {\tt kidexpr}
contains the gene expression values for the study.

As an example of a gene in the study, the expression values of the fifth gene
are shown in Figure~\ref{fig:kplot}. It is very difficult to find a trend for
this particular gene. Instead, we need to adjust the data with the models in
the study which is discussed in the next section.

\subsection{Creating the full and null models}
In order to find differentially expressed genes, the full and null model for
the study need to be formulated. There are two ways to input the experimental
models in \edgeNS: {\tt build\_models} and {\tt build\_study}.
{\tt build\_study} should be used by users unfamiliar with formulating the
full and null models but are familiar with the covariates in the study:
<<kidney_build_study, dependson="kidney_variables", cache=TRUE>>=
de_obj <- build_study(data = kidexpr, adj.var = sex, tme = age, sampling = "timecourse", basis.df = 4)
@

{\tt adj.var} is for the adjustment variables, {\tt tme} is the time variable,
{\tt basis.df} is the degrees of freedom for the spline fit, and {\tt sampling}
describes the type of experiment. Since {\tt kidney} is a time course study,
the {\tt sampling} argument will be ``timecourse''. The {\tt tme} variable will
be the {\tt age} variable, {\tt basis.df} will be 4 based on previous work by
\cite{storey:2005} and the adjustment variable is {\tt sex}. To view the models
generated by {\tt build\_study}:

<<dependson="kidney_build_study", cache=TRUE>>=
fullModel(de_obj)
nullModel(de_obj)
@

Notice that the difference between the full and null model is the  natural
spline fit of the {\tt age} variable. If we look at Figure~\ref{fig:kplot},
it becomes evident that a spline curve can be used to approximate the fit of
the data, and 4 degrees of freedom is chosen based on previous analysis of the
expression patterns. See \cite{storey:2005} for a detailed discussion on
modelling in time course studies.

Alternatively, if the user is familiar with their full and null models in the
study then {\tt build\_models} can be used to input the models directly:
<<kidney_build_models, dependson="import_data_kid", cache=TRUE>>=
library(splines)
cov <- data.frame(sex = sex, age = age)
null_model <- ~sex
null_model <- ~sex + ns(age, df=4)
de_obj <- build_models(data = kidexpr, cov = cov, full.model = null_model, null.model = null_model)
@

The {\tt cov} argument is a data frame of all the relevant covariates,
{\tt full.model} and {\tt null.model} are the full and null models of the
experiment, respectively. Notice that the models must be formatted as a formula
and contain the same variable names as in the {\tt cov} data frame. The null
model contains the {\tt sex} covariate and the full model includes the
{\tt age} variable. Therefore, we are interested in testing whether the full
model improves the model fit of a gene significantly when compared to the null
model. If it does not, then we can conclude that there is no significant
difference in the gene as it ages in the cortex.

The variable {\tt de\_obj} is an {\tt deSet} object that stores all the
relevant experimental data. The {\tt deSet} object is discussed further in the
next section.

\subsection{The {\tt deSet} object}
\label{subsec:deSet}
Once either {\tt build\_models} or {\tt build\_study} is used, an {\tt deSet}
object is created. To view the slots contained in the object:
<<>>=
slotNames(de_obj)
@
A description of each slot is listed below:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\tt full.model}: the full model of the experiment. Contains the
biological variables of interest and the adjustment variables.
\item {\tt null.model}: the null model of the experiment. Contains the
adjustment variables in the experiment.
\item {\tt full.matrix}: the full model in matrix form.
\item {\tt null.matrix}: the null model in matrix form.
\item {\tt individual}: variable that keeps track of individuals (if same
individuals are sampled multiple times).
\item {\tt qvalueObj}: {\tt qvalue} list. Contains p-values, q-values and local
false discovery rates of the significance analysis. See the
\href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/qvalue.html}{{\tt qvalue} package}
for more details.
\item {\tt ExpressionSet}: inherits the slots from {\tt ExpressionSet} object.
\end{itemize}

{\tt ExpressionSet} contains the expression measurements and other information
from the experiment. The {\tt deSet} object inherits all the functions from
an {\tt ExpressionSet} object. As an example, to access the expression values,
one can use the function {\tt exprs} or to access the covariates, {\tt pData}:
<<>>=
gibexpr <- exprs(de_obj)
cov <- pData(de_obj)
@

The {\tt ExpressionSet} class is a widely used object in Bioconductor and more
information can be found \href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/2.14/bioc/html/Biobase.html}{here}. See the section~\ref{sec:advanced} on {\tt ExpressionSet} to get a better
understanding of how it integrates into the \edge framework.

As an example of how to access the slots of {\tt de\_obj} suppose we are
interested in viewing the full and null models. The models can be accessed by:
<<eval = FALSE, dependson="kidney_build_models">>=
fullModel(de_obj)
nullModel(de_obj)
@

Next, we can extract the models in matrix form for computational analysis:
<<eval = FALSE, dependson="kidney_build_models">>=
full_matrix <- fullMatrix(de_obj)
null_matrix <- nullMatrix(de_obj)
@
See {\tt ?deSet} for additional functions to access different slots of the
{\tt deSet} object.

\subsection{Fitting the data}

\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.height=4, fig.width=8, echo=FALSE, cache = TRUE, dependson=c("kidney_import_data")>>=
library(ggplot2)
library(reshape2)
de_obj <- build_study(data = kidexpr, adj.var = sex, tme = age, sampling = "timecourse", basis.df=4)
ef_obj <- fit_models(de_obj)
fitVals <- fitFull(ef_obj)
fitVals0 <- fitNull(ef_obj)


df <- data.frame(age= age, sex=sex, null.model = fitVals0[5,], full.model = fitVals[5,], raw = exprs(de_obj)[5,])
df <- melt(data = df, id.vars=c("age", "sex"))
ggplot(df, aes(age, value, color=sex), xlab="age", ylab="expression") + geom_point() + facet_wrap(~variable)
@
\caption{Plot of gene 5 in the {\tt kidney} study after applying the full and
null model fit. The ``raw'' column are the expression values of the original
data.}
\label{fig:kplotFit}
\end{figure}

The {\tt fit\_models} function is an implementation of least squares using the
full and null models:
<<kidney_fit_models, dependson="kidney_build_models">>=
ef_obj <- fit_models(de_obj, stat.type="lrt")
@
The {\tt stat.type} argument specifies whether you want the {\tt odp} or
{\tt lrt} fitted values. The difference between choosing ``odp'' and ``lrt''
is that ``odp'' centers the data by the null model fit which is necessary for
downstream analysis in the optimal discovery procedure. {\tt fit\_models}
creates another object with the following slots:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\tt fit.full}: fitted values from the full model.
\item {\tt fit.null}: fitted values from null model.
\item {\tt res.full}: residuals from the full model.
\item {\tt res.null}: residuals from the null model.
\item {\tt dH.full}: diagonal elements in the projection matrix for the full
model.
\item {\tt beta.coef}: the coefficients for the full model.
\item {\tt stat.type}: statistic type used, either ``odp'' or ``lrt''.
\end{itemize}

To access the fitted coefficients of the full model in {\tt ef\_obj}:
<<eval=FALSE, dependson="kidney_fit_models">>=
betaCoef(ef_obj)
@

To access the full and null residuals:
<<eval=FALSE, dependson="kidney_fit_models">>=
alt_res <- resFull(ef_obj)
null_res <- resNull(ef_obj)
@

To access the fitted values:
<<eval=FALSE, dependson="kidney_fit_models">>=
alt_fitted <- fitFull(ef_obj)
null_fitted <- fitNull(ef_obj)
@

See {\tt ?deFit} for more details on accessing the slots in a {\tt deFit}
object. The fitted values of the fifth gene are shown in
Figure~\ref{fig:kplotFit}. The null model fit is the average expression. It
appears that the full model fits the raw data better than the null model. Next,
we have to test whether the observed differences between the model fits are
significant.

\subsection{Significance analysis}
Interpreting the models in a hypothesis test is very intuitive: Does the full
model better fit the data when compared to the null model? For the fitted
values of the fifth gene plotted in Figure~\ref{fig:kplotFit}, it seems that
the full model fits the data better than the null model. In order to conclude
it is significant, we need to calculate the p-value. The user can use either
the optimal discovery procedure or likelihood ratio test.

\subsubsection{Likelihood ratio test}
The {\tt lrt} function performs a likelihood ratio test to determine p-values:
<<echo=FALSE>>=
library(splines)
@
<<kidney_lrt, eval=TRUE, cache=FALSE, dependson="kidney_build_models">>=
de_lrt <- lrt(de_obj, nullDistn="normal")
@
If the null distribution, {\tt nullDistn}, is calculated using ``bootstrap''
then residuals from the full model are re-sampled and added to the null model
to simulate a distribution where there is no differential expression.
Otherwise, the default input is ``normal'' and the assumption is that the null
statistics follow a F-distribution. See {\tt ?lrt} for additional arguments.

\subsubsection{Optimal discovery procedure}
{\tt odp} performs the optimal discovery procedure, which is a new approach
developed by \cite{storey:2005} for optimally performing many hypothesis tests
in a high-dimensional study. When testing a feature, information from all the
features is utilized when testing for significance of a feature. It guarantees
to maximize the number of expected true positive results for each fixed number
of expected false positive results which is related to the false discovery
rate.

The optimal discovery procedure can be implemented on {\tt de\_obj} by the
{\tt odp} function:
<<echo=FALSE>>=
library(splines)
@
<<kidney_odp, eval=TRUE, cache=TRUE, dependson="kidney_build_models">>=
de_odp <- odp(de_obj, bs.its = 50, verbose = FALSE, n.mods = 50)
@
The number of bootstrap iterations is controlled by {\tt bs.its}, {\tt verbose}
prints each bootstrap iteration number and {\tt n.mods} is the number of
clusters in the k-means algorithm.

A k-means algorithm is used to assign genes to groups in order to speed up
the computational time of the algorithm. If {\tt n.mods} is equal to the number
of genes then the original optimal discovery procedure is used. Depending on
the number of genes, this setting can take a very long time.  Therefore, it is
recommended to use a small {\tt n.mods} value to substantially decrease the
computational time. In \cite{woo:leek:storey:2011}, it is shown that assigning
{\tt n.mods} to about 50 will cause a negligible loss in power. Type {\tt ?odp}
for more details on the algorithm.

\subsection{Significance results}
The {\tt summary} function can be used on an {\tt deSet} object to give an
overview of the analysis:
<<dependson = "kidney_odp">>=
summary(de_odp)
@

There are three core summaries: {\tt ExpressionSet} summary, \edge analysis and
statistical significance summary. The {\tt ExpressionSet} summary shows a
summary of the {\tt ExpressionSet} object. \edge analysis shows an overview of
the models used and other information about the data set. The significance
analysis shows the proportion of null genes, $\pi_{0}$, and significant genes
at various cutoffs in terms of p-values, q-values and local false discovery
rates.

The function {\tt qvalueObj} can be used on {\tt de\_odp} to extract the
significance results:
<<>>=
sig_results <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
@

The object {\tt sig\_results} is a list with the following slots:
<<>>=
names(sig_results)
@

The key variables are {\tt pi0}, {\tt pvalues}, {\tt lfdr} and {\tt qvalues}.
The {\tt pi0} variable provides an estimate of the proportion of null p-values,
{\tt pvalues} are the p-values, {\tt qvalues} are the estimated q-values and
{\tt lfdr} are the local false discovery rates. Using the function {\tt hist}
on {\tt sig\_results} will produce a p-value histogram along with the density
curves of q-values and local false discovery rate values:
<<eval=FALSE>>=
hist(sig_results)
@

\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.width=8, fig.height=4, echo=FALSE, dependson="kidney_sig">>=
hist(sig_results)
@
\caption{Applying the function {\tt hist} to the slot {\tt qvalueObj} in the
{\tt kidney} data set. Function is derived from the {\tt qvalue} package.}
\label{fig:kqvalHist}
\end{figure}

The plot is shown in Figure~\ref{fig:kqvalHist}. To extract the p-values,
q-values, local false discovery rates and the $\pi_{0}$ estimate:
<<kidney_extract, dependson="kidney_sig">>=
pvalues <- sig_results$pvalues
qvalues <- sig_results$qvalues
lfdr <- sig_results$lfdr
pi0 <- sig_results$pi0
@

Making significance decisions based on p-values in multiple hypothesis testings
problems can lead to accepting a lot of false positives in the study. Instead,
using q-values to determine significant genes is recommended because it
controls the false discovery rate at a level {\tt alpha}. Q-values measure the
proportion of false positives incurred when calling a particular test
significant. For example, to complete our analysis of gene 5 in this example,
lets view the q-value estimate:
<<kidneyprint, dependson="kidney_extract">>=
qvalues[5]
@

So for this particular gene, the q-value is \Sexpr{qvalues[5]}. If we consider
a false discovery rate cutoff of 0.1 then this gene is not significant.
Therefore, the observed differences observed in Figure~\ref{fig:kplotFit} are
not significant so this particular gene is not differentially expressed as the
kidney ages.

To get a list of all the significant genes at a false discovery rate cutoff
of 0.1:
<<dependson="kidney_extract">>=
fdr.level <- 0.1
sigGenes <- qvalues < fdr.level
@

View the \href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/qvalue.html}{{\tt qvalue} vignette} to get a more thorough discussion in how to use p-values, q-values,
$\pi_{0}$ estimate and local false discovery rates to determine significant
genes.

\section{Case study: longitudinal time course experiment}
\label{sec:endotoxin}
In the longitudinal time course study, the goal is to identify genes that show
``between-class temporal differential expression'', i.e., genes that show
statistically significant differences in expression over time between the
various groups. The {\tt endotoxin} data set provides gene expression
measurements in an endotoxin study where four subjects were given endotoxin and
four subjects were given a placebo. Blood samples were collected and leukocytes
were isolated from the samples before infusion. Measurements were recorded at
times 2, 4, 6, 9, 24 hours. We are interested in identifying genes that vary
over time between the endotoxin and control groups. See \cite{calvano:2005} for
more details regarding the {\tt endotoxin} dataset.

\subsection{Importing the data}
To import the {\tt endotoxin} data use the {\tt data} function:
<<endotoxin_import_data>>=
data(endotoxin)
endoexpr <- endotoxin$endoexpr
class <- endotoxin$class
ind <- endotoxin$ind
time <- endotoxin$time
@

There are a few covariates in this data set: {\tt endoexpr}, {\tt class},
{\tt ind}, and {\tt time}. There are 8 individuals in the experiment
({\tt ind}) that were sampled at multiple time points ({\tt time}) that were
either ``endotoxin'' or ``control'' ({\tt class}). The {\tt endoexpr} variable
contains the expression values of the experiment.

To show an example gene, the expression values of the second gene are shown in
Figure~\ref{fig:eplot}. It is very difficult to find a trend for this
particular gene. Instead, we need to adjust the data with the models in the
study.
\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.height=4, fig.width=8, echo=FALSE, cache=TRUE, dependson="endotoxin_import_data">>=
library(ggplot2)

qplot(time, endoexpr[2,], geom="point", colour=class, xlab= "time (hours)", ylab="expression")
@
\caption{Plot of gene 2 in the {\tt endotoxin} study.}
\label{fig:eplot}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Creating the full and null models}
In order to find differentially expressed genes, there first needs to be an
full and null model for the study. There are two ways to input the experimental
models in \edgeNS: {\tt build\_models} and {\tt build\_study}.
{\tt build\_study} should be used by users unfamiliar with formulating the full
and null models but are familiar with the covariates in the study:
<<endotoxin_build_study, dependson="endotoxin_import_data", cache=TRUE>>=
de_obj <- build_study(data = endoexpr, grp = class, tme = time, ind = ind, sampling = "timecourse")
@

{\tt grp} is for the variable which group each individual belongs to, {\tt tme}
is the time variable, {\tt ind} is used when individuals are sampling multiple
times and {\tt sampling} describes the type of experiment. Since {\tt endotoxin}
is a time course study, the {\tt sampling} argument will be ``timecourse''. The
{\tt tme} variable will be the {\tt time} variable, {\tt ind} is the
{\tt individuals} variable and the {\tt grp} variable is {\tt class}. To view
the models created by {\tt build\_study}:
<<endotoxin_emodels>>=
fullModel(de_obj)
nullModel(de_obj)
@

See \cite{storey:2005} for how the models in the {\tt endotoxin} experiment are
formed. Alternatively, if the user is familiar with their full and null models
in the study then {\tt build\_models} can be used to input the models directly:
<<endotoxin_build_models, dependson="endotoxin_import_data">>=
cov <- data.frame(ind = ind, tme = time, grp = class)
null_model <- ~grp + ns(tme, df = 2, intercept = FALSE)
null_model <- ~grp + ns(tme, df = 2, intercept = FALSE) + (grp):ns(tme, df = 2, intercept = FALSE)
de_obj <- build_models(data = endoexpr, cov = cov, full.model = null_model, null.model = null_model)
@

The {\tt cov} argument is a data frame of all the relevant covariates,
{\tt full.model} and {\tt null.model} are the full and null models of the
experiment, respectively. Notice that the models must be formatted as a formula
and contain the same variable names as in the {\tt cov} data frame. We are
interested in testing whether the full model improves the model fit of a gene
significantly when compared to the null model. If it does not, then we can
conclude that there is no significant difference in this gene between the
endotoxin and the control as time goes on.

The variable {\tt de\_obj} is an {\tt deSet} object that stores all the
relevant experimental data. The {\tt deSet} object is discussed further in the
next section.

\subsection{The {\tt deSet} object}
Once either {\tt build\_models} or {\tt build\_study} is used, an {\tt deSet}
object is created. To view the slots contained in the object:
<<endotoxin_slotNames>>=
slotNames(de_obj)
@
A description of each slot is listed below:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\tt full.model}: the full model of the experiment. Contains the
biological variables of interest and the adjustment variables.
\item {\tt null.model}: the null model of the experiment. Contains the
adjustment variables in the experiment.
\item {\tt full.matrix}: the full model in matrix form.
\item {\tt null.matrix}: the null model in matrix form.
\item {\tt individual}: variable that keeps track of individuals (if same
individuals are sampled multiple times).
\item {\tt qvalueObj}: {\tt qvalue} list. Contains p-values, q-values and local
false discovery rates of the significance analysis. See the
\href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/qvalue.html}{{\tt qvalue} package}
for more details.
\item {\tt ExpressionSet}: inherits the slots from {\tt ExpressionSet} object.
\end{itemize}

{\tt ExpressionSet} contains the expression measurements and other information
from the experiment. The {\tt deSet} object inherits all the functions from an
{\tt ExpressionSet} object. As an example, to access the expression values, one
can use the function {\tt exprs} or to access the covariates, {\tt pData}:
<<>>=
gibexpr <- exprs(de_obj)
cov <- pData(de_obj)
@
The {\tt ExpressionSet} class is a widely used object in Bioconductor and more
information can be found \href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/2.14/bioc/html/Biobase.html}{here}. See the section~\ref{sec:advanced} on {\tt ExpressionSet} to get a better
understanding of how it integrates into the \edge framework.

As an example of how to access the slots of {\tt de\_obj} suppose we are
interested in viewing the full and null models. The models can be accessed by:
<<endotoxin_models, dependson="endotoxin_build_models">>=
fullModel(de_obj)
nullModel(de_obj)
@

Next, we can extract the models in matrix form for computational analysis:
<<endotoxin_matrix, eval=TRUE, dependson="endotoxin_build_models">>=
full_matrix <- fullMatrix(de_obj)
null_matrix <- nullMatrix(de_obj)
@

See {\tt ?deSet} for additional functions to access different slots of the
{\tt deSet} object.

\subsection{Fitting the data}
The {\tt fit\_models} function is an implementation of least squares using the
full and null models:
<<endotoxin_fit_models, dependson="endotoxin_build_models">>=
ef_obj <- fit_models(de_obj, stat.type="lrt")
@

\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.height=4, fig.width=8, echo=FALSE, cache=TRUE, dependson=c("endotoxin_import_data")>>=
library(ggplot2)
library(reshape2)
#endoexpr <- endoexpr - rowMeans(endoexpr)
de_obj <- build_study(data = endoexpr, grp = class, tme = time, ind = ind, sampling = "timecourse", basis.df=2)
ef_obj <- fit_models(de_obj)
fitVals <- fitFull(ef_obj)
fitVals0 <- fitNull(ef_obj)

id=2
df <- data.frame(class= class, tme=time, ind=ind, null.model = fitVals0[id,], full.model = fitVals[id,])
df <- melt(data = df, id.vars=c("class", "tme", "ind"))
ggplot(df, aes(tme, value, color=class), xlab="time (hours)", ylab="expression") + geom_smooth(se=FALSE) + facet_wrap(~variable)
@
\caption{Plot of gene 2 in the {\tt endotoxin} study after applying the full
and null model fit. The ``raw'' column is the expression values of the original
data.}
\label{fig:eplotFit}
\end{figure}
The {\tt stat.type} argument specifies whether you want the {\tt odp} or
{\tt lrt} fitted values. The difference between choosing ``odp'' and ``lrt''
is that ``odp'' centers the data by the null model fit which is necessary for
downstream analysis in the optimal discovery procedure. {\tt fit\_models}
creates another object with the following slots:
\begin{itemize}
\item {\tt fit.full}: fitted values from the full model.
\item {\tt fit.null}: fitted values from null model.
\item {\tt res.full}: residuals from the full model.
\item {\tt res.null}: residuals from the null model.
\item {\tt dH.full}: diagonal elements in the projection matrix for the full
model.
\item {\tt beta.coef}: the coefficients for the full model.
\item {\tt stat.type}: statistic type used, either ``odp'' or ``lrt''.
\end{itemize}

To access the fitted coefficients of the full model in {\tt ef\_obj}:
<<eval=FALSE, dependson="endotoxin_fit_models">>=
betaCoef(ef_obj)
@

To access the full and null residuals:
<<eval=FALSE, dependson="endotoxin_fit_models">>=
alt_res <- resFull(ef_obj)
null_res <- resNull(ef_obj)
@

To access the fitted values:
<<dependson="endotoxin_fit_models">>=
alt_fitted <- fitFull(ef_obj)
null_fitted <- fitNull(ef_obj)
@

See {\tt ?deFit} for more details on accessing the slots in an {\tt deFit}
object. The fitted values of the second gene are shown in
Figure~\ref{fig:eplotFit}. It appears that the full model fits a pattern that
might be observed in the raw data. Next, we have to test whether the observed
differences between the model fits are significant.

\subsection{Significance analysis}
Interpreting the models in a hypothesis test is very intuitive: Does the full
model better fit the data when compared to the null model? For the fitted
values of the second gene plotted in Figure~\ref{fig:eplotFit}, it seems that
the full model fits the data better than the null model. In order to conclude
it is significant, we need to calculate the p-value. The user can use either
the optimal discovery procedure or likelihood ratio test.

\subsubsection{Likelihood ratio test}
The {\tt lrt} function performs a likelihood ratio test to determine p-values:
<<endotoxin_lrt, eval=TRUE, cache=FALSE, dependson="endotoxin_build_models">>=
de_lrt <- lrt(de_obj, nullDistn="normal")
@
If the null distribution, {\tt nullDistn}, is calculated using ``bootstrap''
then residuals from the full model are re-sampled and added to the null model
to simulate a distribution where there is no differential expression. Otherwise,
the default input is ``normal'' and the assumption is that the null statistics
follow a F-distribution. See {\tt ?lrt} for additional arguments.

\subsubsection{Optimal discovery procedure}
{\tt odp} performs the optimal discovery procedure, which is a new approach
developed by \cite{storey:2005} for optimally performing many hypothesis tests
in a high-dimensional study. When testing a feature, information from all the
features is utilized when testing for significance of a feature. It guarantees
to maximize the number of expected true positive results for each fixed number
of expected false positive results which is related to the false discovery
rate.

The optimal discovery procedure can be implemented on {\tt de\_obj} by
the {\tt odp} function:
<<endotoxin_odp, eval=TRUE, cache=TRUE, dependson="endotoxin_build_models">>=
de_odp <- odp(de_obj, bs.its = 50, verbose = FALSE, n.mods = 50)
@
The number of bootstrap iterations is controlled by {\tt bs.its}, {\tt verbose}
prints each bootstrap iteration number and {\tt n.mods} is the number of
clusters in the k-means algorithm.

A k-means algorithm is used to assign genes to groups in order to speed up
the computational time of the algorithm. If {\tt n.mods} is equal to the number
of genes then the original optimal discovery procedure is used. Depending on
the number of genes, this setting can take a very long time.  Therefore, it is
recommended to use a small {\tt n.mods} value to substantially decrease the
computational time. In \cite{woo:leek:storey:2011}, it is shown that assigning
{\tt n.mods} to about 50 will cause a negligible loss in power. Type {\tt ?odp}
for more details on the algorithm.

\subsection{Significance results}
The {\tt summary} function can be used on an {\tt deSet} object to give an
overview of the analysis:
<<dependson = "endotoxin_odp">>=
summary(de_odp)
@
There are three core summaries: {\tt ExpressionSet} summary, \edge analysis and
statistical significance summary. The {\tt ExpressionSet} summary shows a
summary of the {\tt ExpressionSet} object. \edge analysis shows an overview of
the models used and other information about the data set. The significance
analysis shows the proportion of null genes, $\pi_{0}$, and significant genes
at various cutoffs in terms of p-values, q-values and local false discovery
rates.

The function {\tt qvalueObj} can be used on {\tt de\_odp} to extract the
significance results:
<<endotoxin_sig>>=
sig_results <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
@

The object {\tt sig\_results} is a list with the following slots:
<<endotoxin_sigNames>>=
names(sig_results)
@
\begin{figure}[t]
 \centering
<<fig.width=8, fig.height=4, echo=FALSE, dependson="endotoxin_sig">>=
hist(sig_results)
@
\caption{Applying the function {\tt hist} to the slot {\tt qvalueObj} in the
{\tt endotoxin} data set. Function is derived from the {\tt qvalue} package.}
\label{fig:eqvalHist}
\end{figure}

The key variables are {\tt pi0}, {\tt pvalues}, {\tt lfdr} and {\tt qvalues}.
The {\tt pi0} variable provides an estimate of the proportion of null p-values,
{\tt pvalues} are the p-values, {\tt qvalues} are the estimated q-values and
{\tt lfdr} are the local false discovery rates. Using the function {\tt hist}
on {\tt sig\_results} will produce a p-value histogram along with the density
curves of q-values and local false discovery rate values:
<<endotoxin_hist,eval=FALSE>>=
hist(sig_results)
@

The plot is shown in Figure~\ref{fig:eqvalHist}. To extract the p-values,
q-values, local false discovery rates and the $\pi_{0}$ estimate:
<<endotoxin_extract, dependson="endotoxin_sig">>=
pvalues <- sig_results$pvalues
qvalues <- sig_results$qvalues
lfdr <- sig_results$lfdr
pi0 <- sig_results$pi0
@

Making significance decisions based on p-values in multiple hypothesis testings
problems can lead to accepting a lot of false positives in the study. Instead,
using q-values to determine significant genes is recommended because it
controls the false discovery rate at a level {\tt alpha}. Q-values measure the
proportion of false positives incurred when calling a particular test
significant. For example, to complete our analysis of gene 2 in this example,
lets view the q-value estimate:
<<endotoxinprint, dependson="endotoxin_extract">>=
qvalues[2]
@

So for this particular gene, the q-value is \Sexpr{qvalues[2]}. If we consider
a false discovery rate cutoff of 0.1 then this gene is not significant.
Therefore, the observed differences observed in Figure~\ref{fig:eplotFit} are
not significant so this particular gene is not differentially expressed between
{\tt class} as time varies.

To get a list of all the significant genes at a false discovery rate cutoff of
0.1:
<<endotoxin_sigList, dependson="endotoxin_extract">>=
fdr.level <- 0.1
sigGenes <- qvalues < fdr.level
@

View the \href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/qvalue.html}{{\tt qvalue} vignette} to get a more thorough discussion in how to use p-values, q-values,
$\pi_{0}$ estimate and local false discovery rates to determine significant
genes.

\section{{\tt sva}: Surrogate variable analysis}
\label{sec:SVA}
The {\tt sva} package is useful for removing batch effects or any unwanted
variation in an experiment. It does this by forming surrogate variables to
adjust for sources of unknown variation. Details on the algorithm can be found
in \cite{leek:2007}. \edge uses the {\tt sva} package in the function
{\tt apply\_sva}. Suppose we are working with the {\tt kidney} data
in~\ref{sec:kidney}, then the first step is to create an {\tt deSet} object by
either using {\tt build\_models} or {\tt build\_study}:
<<build_models_kidsva, dependson="import_data_kidney", cache=TRUE>>=
library(splines)
cov <- data.frame(sex = sex, age = age)
null_model <- ~sex
full_model <- ~sex + ns(age, df=4)
de_obj <- build_models(data = kidexpr, cov = cov, full.model = full_model, null.model = null_model)
@

To find the surrogate variables and add them to the experimental models in
{\tt de\_obj}, use the function {\tt apply\_sva}:
<<sva, dependson="build_models_kidsva">>=
de_sva <- apply_sva(de_obj, n.sv = 3, B = 10)
@
{\tt n.sv} is the number of surrogate variables and {\tt B} is the number of
bootstraps. See {\tt ?apply\_sva} for additional arguments. To see the terms
that have been added to the models:
<<sva_terms, dependson="sva">>=
fullModel(de_sva)
nullModel(de_sva)
@
The variables SV1, SV2 and SV3 are the surrogate variables formed by {\tt sva}.
To access the surrogate variables:
<<sva_accessSV>>=
cov <- pData(de_sva)
names(cov)
surrogate.vars <- cov[, 3:ncol(cov)]
@

Now {\tt odp} or {\tt lrt} can be used as in previous examples:
<<sva_odp, dependson="sva">>=
de_odp <- odp(de_sva, bs.its = 50, verbose = FALSE)
de_lrt <- lrt(de_sva, verbose = FALSE)
summary(de_odp)
@

And to extract the $\pi_{0}$ estimate, q-values, local false discovery
rates and p-values:
<<sva_eres>>==
qval_obj <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
qvals <- qval_obj$qvalues
lfdr <- qval_obj$lfdr
pvals <- qval_obj$pvalues
pi0 <- qval_obj$pi0
@

\section{{\tt snm}: Supervised normalization of microarray data}
\label{sec:snm}
There has been a lot of work done on separating signal from confounding
factors, but a lot of algorithms fail to consider both the models of the study
and the technical factors such as batch or array processing date. The {\tt snm}
package allows for supervised normalization of microarrays on a gene expression
matrix. It takes into account both the experimental models and other technical
factors in the experiments. Details on the algorithm can be found in
\cite{mecham:2010}. The {\tt snm} package is implemented in the
{\tt apply\_snm} function. Continuing the analysis on the {\tt kidney} study
in~\ref{sec:kidney}:
<<build_study_kidsnmn, dependson="import_data_kidney", cache=TRUE>>=
library(splines)
cov <- data.frame(sex = sex, age = age)
null_model <- ~sex
full_model <- ~sex + ns(age, df=4)
de_obj <- build_models(data = kidexpr, cov = cov, full.model = full_model, null.model = null_model)
@
Now that we have created {\tt de\_obj}, we can adjust for additional array
effects, dye effects and other intensity-dependent effects.  In this example,
we created array effects that are not existent in the real data set in order to
show how to use the function:
<<edgeSNM2, dependson="build_study_kidsnmn">>=
int.var <- data.frame(array.effects = as.factor(1:72))
de_snm <- apply_snm(de_obj, int.var = int.var, num.iter = 2, diagnose = FALSE, verbose = FALSE)
@
The {\tt int.var} is where the data frame of intensity-dependent effects are
inputted, {\tt diagnose} is a flag to let the software know whether to produce
diagnostic plots. Additional arguments can be found by typing {\tt ?apply\_snm}.

Once the data has been normalized, we can access the normalized matrix by
using {\tt exprs}:
<<snm_exprs>>=
norm.matrix <- exprs(de_obj)
@

To run the significance analysis, {\tt odp} or {\tt lrt} can be used:
<<snm_odp2>>=
de_odp <- odp(de_snm, bs.its = 50, verbose=FALSE)
summary(de_odp)
@

And to extract the $\pi_{0}$ estimate, q-values, local false discovery
rates and p-values:
<<d_eres>>==
qval_obj <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
qvals <- qval_obj$qvalues
lfdr <- qval_obj$lfdr
pvals <- qval_obj$pvalues
pi0 <- qval_obj$pi0
@


\section{{\tt qvalue}: Estimate the q-values}
\label{sec:qvalue}
After {\tt odp} or {\tt lrt} is used, the user may wish to change some
parameters used when calculating the q-values. This can be done by using the
{\tt apply\_qvalue} function. Lets review the analysis process for the
{\tt kidney} dataset in~\ref{sec:kidney}: create the full and null models and
then run {\tt odp} or {\tt lrt} to get significance results. Applying these
steps in the {\tt kidney} dataset:

<<build_study_kidqval, dependson="import_data_kidney", cache=TRUE>>=
# create models
library(splines)
cov <- data.frame(sex = sex, age = age)
null_model <- ~sex
full_model <- ~sex + ns(age, df=4)
de_obj <- build_models(data = kidexpr, cov = cov, full.model = full_model, null.model = null_model)
# run significance analysis
de_obj <- odp(de_obj, bs.its = 50, verbose = FALSE)
@

Suppose we wanted to estimate $\pi_{0}$ using the ``bootstrap'' method in
{\tt qvalue} (see \href{http://www.bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/qvalue.html}{{\tt qvalue} vignette} for more details):
<<qvalChange, dependson="build_study_kidqval">>=
old_pi0est <- qvalueObj(de_obj)$pi0
de_obj <- apply_qvalue(de_obj, pi0.method = "bootstrap")
new_pi0est <- qvalueObj(de_obj)$pi0
@
<<qvalueChangePrint, echo=FALSE>>=
print(data.frame(old_pi0est = old_pi0est, new_pi0est = new_pi0est))
@
In this case, there is a difference between using the ``smoother''
method and ``bootstrap'' method. See {\tt apply\_qvalue} for additional
arguments.

\section{Advanced topic: Using the ExpressionSet object}
\label{sec:advanced}
\edge was designed for complementing {\tt ExpressionSet} objects in
significance analysis. The {\tt deSet} inherits all the slots from an
{\tt ExpressionSet} object and adds vital slots for significance analysis.
The rest of this section is for advanced users because it requires knowledge
of full and null model creation. To begin, lets create an {\tt ExpressionSet}
object from the {\tt kidney} dataset:
<<kidney_expSet, tidy=FALSE, eval=TRUE, cache=TRUE, dependson=c("crtx","import_data")>>==
library(edge)
anon_df <- as(data.frame(age=age, sex=sex), "AnnotatedDataFrame")
exp_set <- ExpressionSet(assayData = kidexpr, phenoData = anon_df)
@

In the {\tt kidney} experiment they were interested in finding the effect of
age on gene expression. In this case, we handle the time variable, {\tt age},
by fitting a natural spline curve as done in \cite{storey:2005}. The relevant
models for the experiment can be written as
<<kidneyModel>>=
library(splines)
null_model <- ~1 + sex
full_model <- ~1 + sex + ns(age, intercept = FALSE, df = 4)
@

where {\tt null\_model} is the null model and {\tt full\_model} is the full
model. The {\tt sex} covariate is an adjustment variable while {\tt age} is the
biological variable of interest. It is important to note that it is necessary
to include the adjustment variables in the formulation of the full models as
done above.

Having both {\tt expSet} and the hypothesis models, the function {\tt deSet}
can be used to create an {\tt deSet} object:
<<cr_deSet, dependson=c("kidneyModel","kidney_expSet")>>==
de_obj <- deSet(exp_set, full.model = full_model, null.model = null_model)
slotNames(de_obj)
@

From the slot names, it is evident that the {\tt deSet} object inherits the
{\tt ExpressionSet} slots in addition to other slots relating to the
significance analysis. See section~\ref{subsec:deSet} for more details on the
{\tt deSet} slots. We can now simply run {\tt odp} or {\tt lrt} for
significance results:
<<aODP>>=
de_odp <- odp(de_obj, bs.its = 50, verbose=FALSE)
de_lrt <- lrt(de_obj)
summary(de_odp)
@

And use the function {\tt qvalueObj} to extract the $\pi_{0}$ estimate,
q-values, local false discovery rates and p-values:
<<snm_eres>>==
qval_obj <- qvalueObj(de_odp)
qvals <- qval_obj$qvalues
lfdr <- qval_obj$lfdr
pvals <- qval_obj$pvalues
pi0 <- qval_obj$pi0
@

\section*{Acknowledgements}
This software development has been supported in part by funding from the
National Institutes of Health and the Office of Naval Research.

\bibliographystyle{plainnat}
\bibliography{edgerefs}
\end{document}
